Muhammad Ali Pasha (Ottoman Turkish: Mohammed Ali Pasha Oully; Turkish and modern; and Albanian:), nicknamed Baziz or Aziz of Egypt, is the founder of modern Egypt and its ruler between 1805 to 1848. He was able to ascend the throne of Egypt in 1805 after it pledged allegiance dignitaries to be automatically upon, having people rose to his predecessor Khurshid Pasha, and enabled him to his intelligence and exploitation of the circumstances surrounding that continues to rule Egypt for all that period, to break this habit Turkish, which was not left Walia to Egypt for more than two years.
Muhammad Ali fought at the beginning of his term internal war against the Mamluks and the British to be subjected him Egypt altogether, then fought proxy wars for the attic in the Arabian Peninsula against the Wahhabis against the rebels on Greek rebels Ottoman rule in Morh, also expanded southward state when added to Sudan. And then turned to attack the Ottoman Empire, where their armies fought in the Levant, Anatolia, and almost fall of the Ottoman Empire, is not opposed to the interests of Western countries, which stopped Muhammad Ali and forced him to give up most of the land annexed.
During the reign of Muhammad Ali, he was able to stand up in Egypt militarily and educationally, industrially and agriculturally and commercially, making Egypt a country with weight in that period, but the situation did not last because of the weakness of his successors and Tafrathm in what we achieved gains gradually to the fall of his country on June 18 Year 1953, abolition of monarchy and declared a republic in Egypt.
Born in the city of the words in the province of Macedonia northern Greece in 1769, the Albanian family. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] His father was a "Ibrahim Agha," head guard assigned Bkhvarh the way his country, [6] and was told that his father was Tobacco dealer. Was his father's seventeen boys did not live them elsewhere, [7] have died with him his father at a young age, then it was soon his mother that died became orphan is in the fourteen years of age Vkvlh uncle "Toson", who died also, Vkvlh governor of the words and a friend His father "Shorbagi Ismail," which included it in a wire soldier, expressed courage and good view, 'Fear ruling and Wife of woman rich and beautiful called "Amina ma'am," was a climber Saad him, and bore him Ibrahim and Toson and Ismail and females bore him two daughters. [6] while decided the Ottoman Empire sent an army to Egypt to take it away from the hands of the French was the vice president of the battalion Albanian, which was strong three hundred soldiers, and was head of the battalion is the son of governor of the words that barely reaches his battalion port of Abu Qir in Egypt in the spring of 1801, [8] until he decided to to return to his country became the battalion commander. [6] According to many who his contemporaries, not only fluent in Albanian language, though he was able to speak Turkish. [9] [10]
After the failure of the French campaign on Egypt, and its withdrawal in 1801, under the pressure of the English attack on the Egyptian stomata, which kept pace with the march Ottoman Levant, [11] as well as the situation in Europe disorder at the time. Encouraged the Mamluks to return to Square events in Egypt, but they were divided into two groups, one alongside the Ottoman forces belonging to Egypt led by Ibrahim your great and the other along with the British, led by Mohammad your millennial. [6] It was not long until withdrew the British from Egypt in accordance with the Treaty of Amiens. [12] This led to a period of chaos as a result of the conflict between the Ottomans who wish to have their actual authority is not a formality to Egypt, and not to return to the state it was in the rule of Egypt in the hands of the Mamluks, and the Mamluks who saw in it a negative right Thoroughbred of their rights . [13] included the conflict set of conspiracies and assassinations in the ranks of the parties, claimed the lives of more than Wall of governors of the Ottomans. [14] During this period of chaos, use Muhammad Ali troops Albanian to drive a wedge between the two parties, and to find a place for him on the scene, 13] also showed Muhammad Ali to woo senior men of the Egyptians and their scholars and sitting with prayer and behind them, and to show compassion and care for the troubles of the Egyptian people and the nation, which earned him also Dr. Egyptians. [14] [15] In March 1804, has been set and the new Ottoman named "Ahmad Khurshid Pasha , "who sensed the seriousness of Muhammad Ali and his band Albanian who was able to take advantage of current events and conflict Ottoman Mamluk, managed to evacuate the Mamluks outside Cairo, he asked Muhammad Ali to go to the level to fight the Mamluks, and sent to Astana students that provide him with an army of" Aldlah. " 1 and that arrived this army until wreaked in Cairo corrupt Mstolea on money, baggage and aggressor on the symptoms, prompting grumbling of the people, and student leaders have the governor Khurshid Pasha to rein in these forces, but it failed to do so, sparking people's revolution which led to the isolation of the governor, [14] and chose leaders of the people under the leadership of Omar Makram - Captain supervision - Muhammad Ali to sit him. [13] [14] In July 9, 1805, and before the judgment of the status quo, issued the Ottoman Sultan Selim III royal decree for isolating Khurshid Pasha from the state of Egypt, and the inauguration of Muhammad Ali of Egypt. [14]
After that pledged allegiance dignitaries people in the courthouse to be ruler of Egypt on May 17, 1805 m and approved by the firman Royal issued on July 9 of the same year, was Muhammad Ali to face the greatest danger posed by, namely the Mamluks led by Muhammad your Alfi, who was 's favorite British since Sandem when driven out the French from Egypt. It was not only 3 months until he decided to attack the Mamluks of Cairo, and some heads Rasilwa soldiers to join them when attacking the city. Muhammad Ali science including plotting to him, demanded the heads of the soldiers and Mjarathm lure them to enter the city. On the day of the celebration fulfillment of the Nile in 1805, attacked the thousand of Mamluk Cairo, to fall into the trap set by Muhammad Ali to them, and sign their losses, forcing them to withdraw. Then, took advantage of the opportunity Muhammad Ali, and chased them until evacuated from Giza, Vtgahkaroa to level that he was still in their hands. [16]In early 1806, enforced Muhammad Ali army to fight the Mamluks in the level under the leadership of Hassan Pasha, commander of the band Albanian, who clashed with the forces of Muhammad your millennial most numerous in Fayoum, and defeated forces Mohammed Ali, which led to its withdrawal to the south of Giza, and then fled south to Beni Suef in front of the troops Mohammad Alfi your creeping towards Giza. This coincided with the creep forces Ibrahim Othman your great and your Albrdesa from Assiut to the occupation of Minya, which was a garrison of Muhammad Ali, but the forces of good Pasha supported the garrison and stopped creep forces Mamluks to Minya. [17]In the meantime, issued Furman Soltani isolating Muhammad Ali from the state of Egypt, and Tolath mandate of Thessaloniki. Muhammad showed to comply with the order and ready to leave, but he argued that the soldiers refuse his departure before payment of salary arrears. At the same time, he resorted to Omar Makram captain supervision who had a role in the governance Tolath to intercede for him when the Sultan to stop firman. Egypt sent scientists and honorable message to the Sultan, remember the advantages of Muhammad Ali and had a hand in the defeat of the Mamelukes, and seek him keep the ruler of Egypt. Astana kissed on the lead Muhammad Ali 4.000 bag, 2 and sends his son Ibrahim hostage in Astana to be paid this hypothesis. [18]After Muhammad went to your millennial Giza, Cairo did not attack, but went to the Damanhour based on a secret agreement between him and his allies the British, to take a center for assembling his troops, but Vhazaretha people of the city and its garrison stiff defense. When he was Muhammad Ali news blockade Damanhour, sent part of his army to face the forces of Muhammad your Alfi, reaching Rahmaniya in late July of 1806, and clashed with the forces of millennial Balngelh, a village near the Rahmaniya, presents Army of Muhammad Ali for the second time to defeat, and withdrew to Menouf. Alfi returned to the siege of Damanhur, but it did not reach them more accessible, it has a long siege by the soldiers Vtalb complaining, forcing him to lift the siege and withdraw to the level. Soon came news of Muhammad Ali Osman Bey's death Albrdesa a Mamluk princes level, then news of the death during the millennial withdrawal, Vagtbt for it. Inventory quickly and took his army to fight the Mamluks in the level. Army was able to defeat Muhammad Ali Mamluk in Assiut, and Ageletm them, and took them home to his camp, where he came up campaign news in English. [19][Edit] campaign FraserIn the context of the war the Ottoman English, directed a campaign of 5.000 England led troops Gen. Fraser, [20] for the occupation of Alexandria to secure a base of operations against the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean Sea, as part of a larger strategy against the French Alliance Ottoman Empire. [21]Ejaculated the campaign soldiers in a beach-Ajmi on March 17, 1807, then crept troops to occupy Alexandria, handed over by the city's governor, "Emin Aga," 3 to British troops without resistance, Vdkhloha on March 21. [22] and there in their own language news of the death ally Alfi, sent Fraser Millennial successors to lead the Mamluks Ioavoh their forces to Alexandria. At the same time, contacted them Muhammad Ali Ahadmanm, but they feared being accused of treason, so they decided to join forces to Muhammad Ali, even if they harbor that Asophoa so far as the results of the campaign to decide with whom join. [23] decided to Fraser occupation Rasheed Rahmaniya, to cut through enhancements that may come to the city across the River Nile. [24]On March 31, he sent Fraser 1500 troops led by General "Patrick and taint" of the occupation of Rosetta, it was agreed garrison city led by "Ali Bey Asalinclai" and parents to lure the British to enter the city without resistance, even that entered the narrow streets, even rained fire on them from the windows and roofs , and withdrew from the escaped them to Abu Qir, Alexandria, after losing the British in those located about 185 dead and 300 wounded, in addition to a number of prisoners. [25] Posted garrison prisoners and the heads of the dead to Cairo, which sparked a celebration large in Cairo. [26] [27]And the importance of the city, sent Fraser on April 3 army last texture 2500 troops led by Gen. William Stewart, to resume crawling on the city, smote them on April 7 blockade and hit her with guns, and sent Stuart force occupying the village, "Hammad" to encircle Rashid, preventing the arrival of supplies to the city. On 12 April, he returned at the Muhammad Ali, and had a look on the news and decided to send an army of 4000 infantry and 1500 cavalry, led by his deputy, "Ihsanoglu Tboz", to fight the British. Withstood the city for 13 days, [26] until he reached the Egyptian army on April 20, [25], forcing Stewart to withdraw. [28] also sent a messenger to the Captain, "Macleod" Force Commander occupied Hammad ordering him to withdraw, but he was unable to access. The next day, besieged force consisting of 733 soldiers in Al-Hammad. [26] after fierce resistance, and signed power between the dead and prisoners. [29] returned Stewart to Alexandria the rest of his troops, after losing more than 900 of his men were killed or wounded and prisoners. [ 30]She forces Mohammed Ali crept toward Alexandria, Hasroha. [28] On 14 September 1807, was held reconciliation after negotiations between the parties, provided for the cessation of hostilities within 10 days, and the launch of the prisoners English, [27] [31] that the abandonment of troops English city, [21] which has been carried to Sicily on September 25. [25] and thus get rid of Muhammad Ali and one of the biggest risks that almost toppled wisely in its infancy.
Despite the assistance provided by the People's leadership, led by Captain Ashraf Omar Makram, to Muhammad Ali start roll call by the ruler, then his intercession when the Sultan to keep the ruler of Egypt. In spite of the promises and the approach taken by Muhammad Ali at the beginning of his reign with the traditional leaders, his promise to rule with justice and satisfaction that have the power to control it, but that did not last. Once the start the situation in the relative stability internally, eliminating Alfi and the failure of the campaign and the defeat of the Mamelukes Fraser and exclusion to South level, until he found Muhammad Ali that he would not release his hand in judgment, even displace traditional leaders. This coincided with the split-Azhar scholars on the issue of who shall oversee the endowments between supporters of Al-Azhar, Sheikh Abdullah al-Sharqawi and supporters of Sheikh "Mohammed Amir". [32] [33]
In June of 1809, the imposition of new taxes Muhammad Ali on the people, [32] Vhaj people and resorted to Omar Makram who stood next to the people and vowed to move people to a revolution and a massive transfer of informers it to Muhammad Ali. Muhammad Ali took advantage of trying a number of sheikhs and scholars to get closer to him and jealousy of some objects of status Omar Makram between people such as Shaykh Muhammad al-Mahdi and Sheikh Mohammed Aldoakhla, Fastmalhm Muhammad Ali money to sign Makram age. It was Muhammad Ali had prepared an account to send it to the Ottoman Empire, which present aspects of exchange, and prove that he was dismissed certain amounts Jbaha of the country on the orders of old and wanted to prove the sincerity of his message, he asked the leaders of the Egyptians to sign on that account testimony from them the truth of what he brought. But Omar Makram declined to sign and questioned its contents. [32]
Calls sent to Omar Makram interview, he refuses Omar Makram, saying "if it must be, gathered in the house of Sadat." Found Muhammad Ali in that insult him, he gathered a crowd of scientists and leaders, and declared deposed Omar Makram of union supervision and the appointment of Sheikh Sadat, citing the reason that enter in the book of supervising some Copts and Jews match some money, and that he was complicit with the Mamelukes when they attacked Cairo on the fulfillment of the Nile in 1805, then ordered exiled from Cairo to Damietta. [32] and exiled Omar Makram disappeared leadership genuine people from the political arena, replaced by a group of sheikhs who was Muhammad Ali was able to control them, either with money or deductions, and who he called Jabarti "chieftains
Although Muhammad Ali was able to defeat the Mamluks, and deported to South level. However, he remained shy of danger, so he resorted to an alternative strategy is to demonstrate reconciliation and co-opt Bigdaq money and positions and deductions them, even Istdrjhm to return to Cairo. This was a bait that swallows the bulk of the Mamelukes, who responded to the invitation, preferring life Allergd and the luxury of a harsh life and stalking by Muhammad Ali. However, some leaders such as Ibrahim Mamluks your great and Osman Hassan and your men, not assured this offer, and preferred to remain in the level. [35]
In December 1807, received the Muhammad Ali is a royal of the Ottoman Sultan Mustafa IV, stripping campaign to fight the Wahhabis, who took control of the Hijaz, which the Ottomans lost control of the Two Holy Mosques, and thus threatened the religious authority of the Ottomans. However, under Muhammad Ali argues instability internal situation in Egypt, because of the continuous wars with Mamluk. [36] However, after pretending to reconciliation with the Mamluks, did not stay in front of Muhammad Ali to stop it from stripping the campaign, so he decided to Muhammad Ali that strips the campaign led by his son Ahmed Tosson to fight the Wahhabis. Was stripped of the campaign and the departure of a large part of the forces Muhammad Ali great danger to the stability of the conditions in Egypt, the existence of the Mamluks near Cairo, may encourage them to use the opportunity to swoop on Muhammad Ali and his forces. So resorted Muhammad Ali to trick, announced Muhammad Ali for a ceremony in the castle occasion dress son Toson deposed leadership campaign against the Wahhabis, and select his first of March in 1811, and sent calls dignitaries, scientists and Mamluks to attend the ceremony. [35] answered the Mamluks advocacy, and that ended celebration even invited Muhammad Ali to walk in the procession of his son. Been arranged to make their place in the center behind, and reaching the Mamluks to the path of a rocky slope leading to the door of lone scheduled to graduate from the campaign, even closed the door Vtkdst their horses by the slope, and then were surprised by a barrage of bullets off of the rocks on the side of the road and behind them targeted. [ 37] has fallen victim to the massacre known as the massacre of the castle both attended the Mamluks, and the number 470 owned, were not spared from the carnage only owned one called the "Secretary of your", 4, who was able to jump over the castle wall. [38] then the fastest soldiers attacked Homes Mamluks, and finishing on the left of them, looting their homes, but extended looting to neighboring houses, did not stop such acts only revelation of Muhammad Ali and senior men and children the next day, and the number of people killed in these events about 1000 owned. [35 [37]
Exposure Muhammad Ali for many of the criticisms of Western historians because of treachery Palmmalak in the massacre, 5 while counting some, like Mohamed Farid one acts Muhammad Ali the good concluded by Egypt from the evil of the Mamluks. [37] Ptkhals Muhammad Ali of most of the Mamluks, withdrew Mamluks who stayed in level to Dongola, and thus became Muhammad Ali full control of Egypt. [35]
There was a failure of the Ottoman Empire, since the early nineteenth century, in the suppression of the revolutions that has at her, Fastnecdet Polatha to suppress, [39] One of these revolutions that force that has bedeviled the state: the Greek Revolution and the Wahhabi movement in the Arabian Peninsula .6 made the call Wahhabism success in Najd , and embraced Prince Diriyah Mohammed bin Saud bin Mohammed Al Muqrin, and was surpassed to some parts of the Hijaz, Yemen, Asir and the parties of Iraq and Syria, and seized Wahhabis on Mecca and Taif, Medina, [40] even appeared to danger and clear the Ottoman presence in places of deployment, but in the Levant and the world Islamic, and played an important role in the evolution of modern Islamic thought, [40] where is the first reform movement Salafism in the modern era, it is also the first innovative reform movements that have emerged in the Ottoman Empire. [41]
And I felt the Ottoman Empire seriousness of that movement, and realized that its success will lead to a separation of the Hijaz and out of her hand, and thus out of the Two Holy Mosques, the losing leadership it enjoys in the Muslim world by virtue of its oversight of the two holy mosques, at a time when it had begun seeking to overcome the factors internal weaknesses, and to strengthen the links between them and throughout the Muslim world as a center of Islamic Caliphate. [41] formed all these factors an incentive to the Ottoman state to stand up to the call Wahhabism and Response to limit their spread, tried at first by the governors of Baghdad and Damascus, but failed, [42] He fell selected on Muhammad Ali Pasha, reset this military campaign led by his son Ahmed Tosson entered Yanbu and Badr, but it was defeated in yellow. [43] did not invest Wahhabis victory in yellow, and Qubawa in their strongholds, giving Toson opportunity to reorganize the ranks of his troops, as requested supply of Cairo, and took the captivating tribes strike between Yanbu and Medina with money and gifts, and succeeded in this policy that paved his way to restore Medina and Mecca and Taif, [43] but the Wahhabis had returned and were victorious in the soil and Hanakia and cut off roads between Mecca and Medina, [44] and spread diseases in the Egyptian army, and wounded soldiers fatigue resulting from the severe heat and lack of water and advance on costs, [45] the increased position Toson embarrassment, he saw after those losses, the necessary defense plan, and sent to his father asking for help. [45]
Decided to Muhammad Ali Pasha, to walk by himself to the Hijaz to follow the fighting and the elimination of the Wahhabis, and extend the influence of Egypt in the Arabian Peninsula, he left Egypt, on August 26, 1812 m, corresponding to a 17 Sha'ban 1227 AH, at the head of another army and stayed in Jeddah and then left to Mecca and attacked the strongholds of the Wahhabis, but failed to expand its spread, Vokhaly Guenvzh after he had entered, and defeated his son Toson in the soil again. [46] was natural after these repeated defeats and skirmishes Wahhabis continuous units of the Egyptian army, to ask Muhammad Ali Pasha periods of Egypt, and when he arrived aid, and as he was ready to crawl died opponent Saud on April 27, 1814 m, corresponding to a 6 May year 1229 AH, and was succeeded in the emirate son Abdullah. [47] It seems that this prince did not have military capabilities enable it to stave off Egyptian threat led to the collapse of the front of Wahhabism, Vspt this incident in the interest of Muhammad Ali Pasha, who was able to overcome the Army and Happy in Bessel, and dominated the soil and entered the port Guenvzh, while dominated Toson the northern part of the plateau. [48]
At this stage of the evolution of the problem of Wahhabism, forced Muhammad Ali Pasha to leave the Arabian peninsula and return to Egypt to eliminate the rebellion against his rule, and after the elimination of this movement resumed his war against the Wahhabis, sent a military campaign to the Peninsula under the leadership of his son Ibrahim Pasha in 5 September year 1816, corresponding to a 12 Shawwal 1231 AH. [49] enables Ibrahim Pasha, after collisions pitched with the Wahhabis, access to Diriyah and besieged, forced Abdullah bin Saud to open the door to negotiations, and the parties have agreed on the delivery of Diriyah to the Egyptian army, provided subjected to the people, and travels Abdullah bin Saud to Astana to provide loyalty to the Sultan, and to respond Wahhabis planet Dorry, and remained in possession of antiques and jewelry that they took when they took over the city of Medina. [47] and baptized Ibrahim Pasha, after receiving Diriyah, to be demolished. Thus ended the war fought by the Wahhabi Egyptian army in the Arabian Peninsula, and returned to Egypt Ibrahim Pasha.
[Edit] annexation of Sudan
The campaign was in the following campaigns Muhammad Ali is the campaign that inventory to include Sudan. The objectives of the Muhammad Ali is declared the campaign pursuit of gold and diamonds, which relay the people that exists in parts of Sudan, particularly Sennar, and to take Sudanese soldiers in the regular army Egyptian what is known about them patience and courage and obedience, and get rid of the rest of the soldiers difference irregular in the Egyptian army, which The cause unrest and a source of trouble for Muhammad Ali. The ostensible reason for the campaign, was the elimination of the rest of the Mamluks who fled to Dongola. [50] [51]
Antfatt campaign, consisting of 4,000 soldiers in boats Nile on July 20, 1820, led by Ismail Pasha third sons of Muhammad Ali. [52] followed the campaign in the south, dramatically, from Aswan to Wadi Halfa to Dongola, where you encounter the Mamluks defeated and with little resistance. On 4 November of the same year, and faced a crowd of Sudanese primitive weapons and defeated them in Corti. And then continued the Egyptian army crawl, seized on the Berbers on March 10, Year 1821, then Shendi who declared king tiger surrender before the army creeping, then overtook the Omdurman, Vajtasoha and near founded the city of Khartoum to be a military base of Egyptian troops. [50]
Then the face of Ismail Pasha Mohammed Nusseibeh your Aldfterdar in a campaign to bring Kordofan. In April of 1821, troops clashed with forces Aldfterdar Mohammed Sultan credited Kordofan in Barra, Vantsr Aldfterdar and entered the city of White, to include this Kordofan land under the authority of the Egyptian. Ismail walked the rest of his army to bring the Kingdom of Sennar, seized the city of Wad Medani, introduced its king King "Paddy" loyalty of the Egyptian army, went Egyptians Sennar in June 12, 1821. [50] [51]
During the army's presence in Sennar disease spread among the soldiers, forced Ismail to request the periods of his father, Vomayor forces led by his older brother Ibrahim Pasha, and agreed to the division of labor between them, were important Ismail crawl with his army on the Blue Nile region, while Turn Ibrahim to bring the country Dinka and explore Upper Nile. Ismail breaks march in the Blue Nile until he reached Vazogla in January of 1822. As Abraham Volh disease to return to Egypt. [50]
Started revolutions appear in different areas due to the increase continued in the tax imposed by the Egyptians on the Sudanese, and that arrived Ismail Pasha to Shendi in December of 1822, so the king ordered a tiger to appear in front of him and began to reprimand and accused him of fomenting unrest, and then punished him that ordered him to pay a fine heavy and a thousand slaves, fully demonstrating the King Tiger compliance have not gone days even called Ismail Pasha and senior men to feast, and after that Othaglhm food and drink, is set fire to the place, and ordered his soldiers to throw anyone who tries to escape with arrows and darts, died Ismail and his men strangled and burned. Mohammed when he reached your Aldfterdar news, crawled to Shendi and ladle in the killings and captivity, and tracking a tiger king but he did not realize where he fled to the borders of Abyssinia. After that stabilized the situation in Sudan and Dan for the rule of Muhammad Ali. [50]
[Edit] War Morh
Main article: Greece's war of independence
The country of Greece, until the early nineteenth century, part of the Ottoman Empire, and in this period emerged in the country signs the revolution against Ottoman rule, due to four factors: the evolution of Greek society by economic prosperity brought about by the Napoleonic Wars, and the spread of European ideas, especially ideas of the French Revolution , and reactions ramshackle against the central Ottoman and European intervention direct. [53] and took revolutionary movements and political associations covert and overt pose a threat to the unity of the Ottoman Empire start of the year 1820, and taken positions in both Russia and Austria to be in close contact with governments of the European on the one hand, The immune from persecution Ottoman rulers of the other hand. Some of these associations, such as "Assembly brotherly" (Greek: Φιλική Εταιρεία or Εταιρεία των Φιλικών; transliteration: Veliky Aatrella), calls for the revival of the Byzantine Empire and the seizure of the capital, Astana, and directed the Muslims of Europe and pushing them to Asia. [54] has taken Revolution in the territory Morh particular religious character, Jack motto is: Faith and Freedom and the nation. [54] faced the Ottoman Empire significant difficulties in the fight against the rebels, given the many islands and rugged tract, which was famous for Greece, by the knowledge of the Greeks how to use them strategically against Ottoman forces. [ 54] and increase the risk of revolution when, asked Sultan Mahmud II of Muhammad Ali Pasha to send troops to Greece to subdue the rebels. [55]
By Mohamed Ali Pasha to play this role because of the danger directed against the State of Muslim public, of the Ottoman Empire, and against Islam represented by the Ottoman Sultan Caliph of the Muslims, he sent a military campaign led by Hassan Pasha landed on the island of Crete and put down the revolution where, [56] also sent another campaign led by his son Ibrahim Pasha, to quell the revolt Morh, and succeeded in the implementation of landing on beaches after collisions freely harsh with Greek fleet in 1825, [57] and saved the Ottoman army besieged in the port of Coron, also surrounded Naڤarin, the most important sites of the peninsula. [57] and was able Ibrahim Pasha from entering this gap, as open Kalamata and Traپosatta in June of 1825, and chased the rebels and seized their strongholds, with the exception of the city of Noپla, the capital of the revolutionary government, and be prepared to eliminate the last strongholds of the rebels in Hydra Ostbzaa and Port Noپla and Mesolonga. [58] and soon Last that landed in the hands of the Egyptian army, and was the last stronghold of the rebels large. [59]
As a result of the victory of the Egyptian army, the Greeks move European public opinion to save the revolution, I got a group of poles poets and writers arouse public opinion in Europe writings, and urge European countries to intervene in favor of the revolution. [60] and indeed Britain called Russia for consultation, in order to reach an understanding on the future Greece, and culminated in these negotiations to sign پrotokol San Petersburg, who acceded to France after a short period, and three countries agreed to urge the Porte to a truce with the Greeks, and give them a degree of autonomy within the framework of dependency nominal Ottoman Sultan. [61] but the fall Mesolonga heart things upside down, appealed European countries, particularly Russia to violence in support of the rebels, sending its ships to the waters of Greece to impose their demands by force, and to prevent ships Ottoman and Egyptian to reach the shores of this country, and to send supplies to the armies Ottoman and Egyptian. [62] and surrounded fleets Allied fleets Ottoman and Egyptian port Naڤarin and beat them, without warning, and completely devastated on October 20, 1827, corresponding to the 29 March 1243 year e. [60]
At this point of the problem the Greek, views were Ottoman and Egyptian consistent public policy, however, after the intervention of European countries and the victory marine Naڤarin different points of view of both sides. [63] saw Muhammad Ali Pasha, that no point in continuing fighting, after the fleet was interrupted by Moaslath marine with his armies in Greece, and that wisdom requires the segregation of Egyptian politics for politics Ottoman, [63] has accelerated the speed of decision to withdraw Send France a military force inflicted on Morh, and received a memorandum from European countries insist the separation of the country Greece and the targeting of Egypt, he continued to follow the policy Ottoman Empire. So Fadel Mohammed Ali isolate Egypt from the problem Greek, and left to the Sultan. [63] On September 7, 1828 m, corresponding to a 26 Safar 1244 AH, began the withdrawal of the soldiers of the Egyptian Morh on board what remains of the ships, leaving in Greece is a thousand and two hundred troops to maintain some of the sites until you receive the Ottoman soldiers, [64] However, the French troops had the job instead of Ottoman forces. [64]
Out of Mohamed Ali Pasha of war Greek without accrue Pftouh new, did not achieve any benefit from participation in, while the war ended with the Wahhabis to extend its influence on the Arabian Peninsula, and allowed him to enter Sudan annexation of part complementary land of Egypt, [66] Work done by then it was theater of the Levant. The Muhammad Ali aspires of all such assistance and services provided by the Ottoman Empire to grant him the Sultan mandate from the big states, but the Sultan only that I will cut off Muhammad Ali Crete in recognition of his services and compensation for some of what he had lost in the war Greek, [67] but this compensation was not a value, as it was not easy to govern Egypt this island and benefit from the reputation for her family disobedience and rebellion, [66] and saw that includes the Levant to Egypt, paid by the two factors: political and economic. [68]
The political factor is taken Levant barrier protects Egypt strikes Ottoman Empire in the future on the one hand, and the establishment of an Arab state, or do Muslim sultanate strong, on the other hand, also extending his influence on this country would enable it to recruit an army of its population, thus increasing the number of members of his army . [69] As the economic factor, it wanted to exploit resources Levant, wood, coal, copper and iron, which was lacking in Egypt, as well as their economic importance due to its geographical location and contact Anatolia, and its trade relations Boasit Asia, where passing trade caravans, [70] and because of location on the pilgrimage route to the Sacred House. [69]
And likely to Mohammed Ali Pasha was aspiring to join the Levant since 1810, and hopes to reach its verdict consent of the Sultan, [71] he asked Mahmud II, in 1813, during the war of Wahhabism, be entrusted to him by virtue of this country on the pretext that he needed to extended including assisted by the fighting, promised Sultan Mehmet Ali that in July it because of the war in the peninsula was haunted by the bed and I was looking forward to the elimination of the Wahhabis quickly fear that invite them to differentiate between Muslims. [72] As the war ended, he returned the Sultan and he breaks his promise, He felt that the presence of Muhammad Ali in Syria poses a threat to the Sultanate itself. [69] the cradle of Muhammad Ali to carry out his plan, that took strengthen its relations in the strongest two people in the region, namely: Abdullah Pasha of Acre, and Bashir II Shihabi Prince Lebanon, both of which owe to Muhammad Ali to stay in office. The Abdullah Pasha was Muhammad Ali had helped him with the Sultan, after falling out with and to Damascus in 1821, supposedly for the Sultan and approved by the state of Acre, as was Muhammad Ali had standing in the battle against money and to Damascus. [69]
The Emir Bashir was may Nasser Abdullah Pasha in that dispute, and marched at the head of his army and fought and to Damascus and defeated him. The Ottoman Empire was almost seen the defeat of Damascus until inventory Porte military campaign had a powerful Emir Bashir to leave the country and travel to Egypt, where he was welcomed by Muhammad Ali, and agreed to cooperate together. As Muhammad Ali at ease with the Sultan, he was able to Istrdah and softens his stance of Emir Bechir, and bring him back to his emirate. And grew up between Prince and Muhammad Ali is a close relationship and a strong friendship after the reunion ambition is similar, [68], namely the expansion of the country each, Vtaahda to walk together in a common policy. [73] [74] took the goals of Muhammad Ali crystallize, starting in 1825 when Sarh team first French "Boyer" that he will convene, after the end of the war Morh, to put his hand on the Levant, including the state of Acre, and will not stand with his army only on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, and in the country of Yemen and the central part of the Arabian Peninsula. [75 ] and correspond to these ideas with the rumors, quoting him and his son Ibrahim Pasha, that he would be defending the rights of the Arab peoples living under Ottoman rule life's miserable underdog, [75] and became the control of the Levant, starting in 1829, are essential in policy strategy.
And saw a consuls British, named Parker, in 1832, that the army of Muhammad Ali engaged in a project editor of the Arab peoples and collected in the Arab empire, and that his goal is a direct consolidate power in Bashalq Acre and Damascus, and then even more after that about Aleppo and Baghdad through all the Arab provinces. [76] Most historians and link between the request of Mohamed Ali Pasha of the Sultan in 1813, to July Levant, in order to eliminate the Wahhabis in the Hijaz, and the campaign carried out in 1831. Had this been true to seize and to Egypt chance of succeeding in the subject Wahhabis to crawl toward the Levant to be attached, and in particular that the Porte refused him then requests: first re Joseph King to the mandate of the Levant, and the removal of Suleiman Pasha them, and secondly, given this mandate. [77] But it is clear that Muhammad Ali counting that mission is to save the Ottoman Empire itself from the risk of ruin, and radical changes, and breathed new life in them. [75] He was a believer in the unity of the Islamic world under the leadership of Sultan condition that is quick to protect Muslims after the disaster Naڤarin, warning the need to renew the Sultanate on the basis of the Islamic religion. [78] Whether Muhammad Ali dreamed Arab country separate from the Ottoman Empire and is based on the ruins, or his message was spend a Muslim sultanate strong, there is no doubt that the intervention of the European countries in this case if between him and any understanding with the Porte, on the one hand, and prevent it from achieving its objectives, on the other. [79]
The wars of Muhammad Ali Pasha in the Levant wars defensive and offensive at the same time, while being wars defensive because the Muhammad Ali Pasha, he knew that the Ottoman Empire not spared no effort in seeking to recover its position in Egypt, and Sultan Mahmud II did not net faith, while being wars Because offensive goal was also expanding. [71] It seems that Muhammad Ali Pasha had taken the decision to address the high door within several backgrounds. The Anse in his army force, and found that the Ottoman state in case of deterioration and disintegration, and it the focus of attention and conspiracies European countries. [69] Thus signed to Egypt prisoner workers: a prisoner himself, which he saw that the door of higher injustice when prevented from state-Sham, although of his great services to the Sultanate, and a prisoner he believed that the fittest and the governors of the Levant. [80]
[Edit] stages
Passed the wars in the Levant two stages, the first stage agreement Kutahya, in 1833, and established control of the Egyptian al-Sham, while the second phase ended with an agreement to London in 1840, and spent the withdrawal of the Egyptian army.
[Edit] The first phase
Like the direct causes of the war in the internal conflict that took place between Muhammad Ali Pasha, Abdullah Pasha of Acre, [81] have fabricated Muhammad Ali contrast with Acre as demanded to return the money which had been submitted to it, and re-Egyptian peasants fleeing from paying taxes and service Agriculture, and when he was remiss Abdullah Pasha to meet the request of Muhammad Ali, made this procrastination as a pretext for the occupation of the territory of Syria. [82] creep Egyptian army towards Palestine on October 14 / October 1831, corresponding to 7 May year 1247 AH, under the leadership of Ibrahim Pasha bin Muhammad Ali, [81] and took control of the cities of little resistance, with the exception of Acre, which hit the siege center on land and sea in order not to approach her periods sea is not strong enough to open it, as happened to Napoleon Bonaparte by while besieged in 1799. [83] While the resist the siege of Ibrahim Pasha, the sons of Prince Bashir, and Egyptian soldiers with them, control of Tyre and Sidon, Beirut and Byblos. As eluded them faster Ibrahim Pasha of Tripoli to the rescue of his allies, not that soon fell into their hands. [82]
Disrupted the Ottoman Empire before the march of the Egyptian army, and promised that disobedience and has to deal with it. The army clashed Usmani, led by Osman Pasha and to Aleppo, the Egyptian army in the plain south of Homs agriculture, but it was defeated in front of him. He then returned Ibrahim Pasha to Acre to continue its blockade, cleansed it by force on May 28 / May 1832 m, corresponding to a 27 Dhul Hijja 1247 AH, and the families of Abdullah Pasha and sent him to Egypt. [84] He said the commander Egyptian march northward, after control of Acre, entered Damascus with Emir Bashir and his army after the killer and to the city, and welcomed by the population because they were closer to the desire to change their rulers by the Ottomans disadvantages of governors. [85]
Alarming Porte of the fall of Acre, Damascus and control Almbaraan on southern Levant, and feared the Sultan that unwavering position in front of their victories, Vhacd army last led Aseraskar Hussein Pasha and paid to stop the Egyptian army, and forcing the Egyptians to withdraw from the Levant, and issued at the same time decree announcing the betrayal of Muhammad Ali Pasha and his son Ibrahim for legitimate authority. [86] collided Ibrahim Pasha army Ottoman new in the battle of Homs and beat him in the June 29 year 1832, corresponding to 10 Safar 1248 AH, and dominated the protectors and income after the city of Aleppo, and preparedness to resume crawl toward the north. [ 87] withdrew Hussein Pasha north, after losing, and the concentration in the corridor Bilan is a aisles between the Levant and Anatolia, Vlhakh Ibrahim Pasha and collided with him and beat him, and chased from the left of his army even forced them to leave the area through the port of Iskenderun and took control of the corridor, as occupied port of Ayas, north of Alexandretta, and entered the mandate of Adana and Tarsus. [88]
And encouraged the Ottoman defeat Ibrahim Pasha to continue his way, providing the inside Anatolia until he reached the city of Konya, and the Ottoman had gathered to defend the heart of the Sultanate, but Egyptian leader beat them on December 20 / December Year 1832, corresponding to 27 Rajab 1248 AH, and the capture of their leader Grand Vizier Mohammed Rashid Pasha. [82] and this opened the way for him prevail to Astana, even horses to the world at the time that the end of the Ottoman Empire became close. Following the defeat of Konya There was concern capital of the caliphate, and trembled Fraús Sultan who feared progress Ibrahim Pasha towards the capital, turned to European countries to stand in the face of danger fulminant, did not anyone to save him but Russia, 7 For Britain was engaged in its internal affairs and issue the Belgian, [89] 8 and was France supports Muhammad Ali and cooperate with him, was in his army a number of French leaders, and stood by Austria and Prussia on the fence. [90] Russia sent in 1833 a naval fleet to Constantinople to defend it, had barely Britain and France Ttalaaan the presence of Russian ships in the waters of Astana Even Halama it, and felt the danger Russian to them, and to take advantage of Russia Khchita collapse of the Ottoman state to strengthen its position in the sea lanes, [91] Fassarata to offer their help to the Sultan as if abandoned Russian assistance. But the Russians refused to evacuate their ships only after the Egyptians withdraw from Anatolia. Then active representatives of Britain and France to mediate between the Sultan and Muhammad Ali, until he was an exchange of letters between them. [92] used the France friendly relations with Egypt to convince Muhammad Ali Pasha to settle his dispute with the Sultan, and not rigorous in his demands, and only from Vetoha Psonajq Sidon, Tripoli and Jerusalem and Nablus. [93] rejected Muhammad Ali Pasha and French view, and insisted on the inclusion of the Levant and the mandate of Adana, and make the Taurus Mountains boundary between the Ottoman Empire and property, and ordered his son to progress in Vetoha to put pressure on the Sultan. [93]
France has made strenuous efforts to reconcile the points of view, the Ottoman and Egyptian, and threatened, in one of the stages of the negotiations, to cut off the relationship with Egypt. Finally the two sides reached an agreement Kutahya, May 4 / May 1833 m, corresponding to a 14 Dhul Hijja 1248 AH, [94] [95] waiver Porte whereby the entire Levant, and approved of Muhammad Ali Pasha state of Egypt, Crete and the entire Syria Natural ( including Lebanon, Palestine and Adana), and the mandate of his son Ibrahim to Jeddah. [96] Muhammad has pledged to meet it, that leads to the Sultan every year the money that was performed for Sham governors by the Ottomans. Thus Ibrahim Pasha drove away from Anatolia, and ended the first phase of the wars of the Levant, and it seemed that the crisis has ended, too.
[Edit] Phase II
Were not the settlement, which was in Kutahya, but an interim settlement, since Muhammad Ali Pasha did not agree to be held only for fear of the threat of European countries by depriving him of Vetoha, For his part, agreed Sultan Mahmud II held unwillingly under the pressure of events the military and political, which is determined to The resumption of fighting in better conditions to restore its influence in the Levant and Egypt, and what was the political thinking of each party to this form of contradiction, it was necessary to resume the war to decide the outcome. [97] and implemented Sultan policy two-pronged strategy: It is claimed incited the population of the Levant against Egyptian rule on one hand, 9 and mobilized troops to hit the Egyptian armies and forcing it to go out of the country, with the help of Britain, on the other. [97] and realized Muhammad Ali Pasha, after the political developments, that the positions of the European countries were not valid, and that his plans separatism is achievable, but he did not lose hope admittedly Sultanate rights Genetic his family in the governance of the areas that were under his direction, and tried to take the opportunity to make new talks, presented an in talks with an envoy of Sultan, strict Effendi, in Egypt ended in failure because of stiffness in attitudes. [97] 10
So things have evolved towards the political crisis, and has become a war between the two sides is inevitable, and war preparations were in Astana actively and intensively, and followed European countries' military tendencies Sultan with great interest. Took advantage of the Sultan revolution residents Levant on the Egyptian rule, [98] and the payment of an army in the spring of 1839, led by Hafiz Pasha, to the Levant, and it was his appearance at the border enough to bring the crisis to a head, while Ibrahim Pasha was awaiting the implementation of the desire of his father in avoiding All proclaim appearance aggressor. [99] and after that thronged the upper hand, Sultan issued his order to attack Hafiz Pasha Ibrahim Pasha entrenched in Aleppo. It seems that Mohammad Ali owned a joy to carry the Sultan and his commander responsible for starting military operations hostile, so is his son attacked the Ottoman army, and that was in June 15 1839 m, corresponding to two Rabi year 1255 AH. [99] In the battle of Naseeb (located east of Gaziantep in Lafratip island), the Ottoman army me massive loss and a real disaster, with almost military that Livni reel of his father, and the families of the Egyptians, approximately fifteen thousand troops, and looted huge quantities of arms and supplies. He died Sultan Mahmud II before informing him the news of the defeat. [100]
Behind the Sultan Abdul Majid first his father Sultan Mahmud II, a boy has not attained the age of eighteen, [101] and quickly rushed to the negotiations with Muhammad Ali. Vastrt Muhammad Ali, to hold the peace, to be judged in the Levant and Egypt really genetically in his family. [102] and almost Sultan Abdul Majid accept the conditions Muhammad Ali if not received a joint memorandum from Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, ask him to break off the negotiations with Muhammad Ali. The four countries have agreed to prevent Muhammad Ali, strong, that replaces the Ottoman Empire, the weak, the Levant, who pass it by Britain to India. [102] As France has exclusively in its eastern four countries, and felt that continue in support of Muhammad Ali, in the hope that it ensures an excellent residence in the area. Did not take long held that the four countries in 1840 with the Ottoman government conference in London in which participants discuss what was called "Eastern question", and the conference resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Alliance quartet. In this treaty offered four European countries on Muhammad Ali mandate of Egypt and genetically, and the state of Acre lifetime. It stipulated that these countries declare Muhammad Ali accepted the offer within ten days, the did not withdraw the four countries display your state of Acre. If you do not have twenty days in the four countries withdraw the whole display, leaving the Sultan deprived of freedom of the mandate of Egypt. [103]
Muhammad Ali Pasha was his part determined to stick to the country that opened and approved by the Convention Kutahya, and taking bets on helping France and the European war waits between an hour and again, and when I told him of the Ottoman Empire and the consuls of European countries in Egypt terms of the treaty, leaving ten days pass without issue no official response, [104] was advised by consuls of European countries, in today's atheist century, a second warning, and Omhloh ten days, and told him that he no longer has the right in the state of Acre. [105] and ten days have passed second without accept explicitly the implementation of the agreement, return consuls European countries that it means rejection, then the Sultan issued a decree Boukala from the state of Egypt. [106] before this started European countries to take action precursor to the implementation of the commitments, ordered Britain fleet in the Mediterranean to cut transportation land and sea between Egypt and the Levant, beaten ports of this country, and instructed its ambassador in Astana to ignite the fire of revolution against Muhammad Ali in the towns and villages maize, as countries cut off relations with the four European Egypt. [107]
His Mohammed Ali Pasha news isolated quietly, and hoped to overcome this ordeal, and then cover for him when he appeared Amir Sea British "Na_i" in front of Alexandria, threatening language iron and fire, and saw that France is able to resist the whole of Europe, so it signed an agreement with Prince Sea mentioned in which he promised to submit to the wishes of the major powers and the evacuation of the Levant provided to ensure his genetic Egypt, but the Ottoman Empire rejected this condition at the behest of Britain. [108] supported France Mohamed Ali Pasha in his position, and hardened in so there is the fear of the occurrence of a European war, then intervened both Austria and Prussia in this case and were forced Britain and Russia to adopt the point of view of Muhammad Ali Pasha, France, [108] Vajtaz and to Egypt predicament dislocation if forced to sufficiency state of Egypt in the future, and actually Sultan issued a decree making the mandate of Egypt hereditary of Muhammad Ali Pasha, and ended Thus the crisis Ottoman - Egyptian, and drove the Egyptians from the Levant. [109]
[Edit] state-building
Turn Muhammad Ali to build a modern state along the lines European in Egypt, [110] and hired in projects of economic and scientific experts Europeans, including in particular the San Simuneon French who have spent in Egypt a few years in the thirties of the nineteenth century and were calling to establish a model society based on industry approved modern science. The main pillars of the modern state policy educational and cultural modern, where he believes he will not be able to establish a military force European-style and provide them with all the advanced modern techniques and to establish effective management and a thriving economy supported and protected only by creating a modern education replace traditional education.
[Edit] militarily
Muhammad Ali realized that to achieve its objectives expansion, it was necessary to establish a regular military force modern, serve as a tool that has achieved those goals. Before At the beginning of the era of Mohamed Ali, the army was composed of teams irregulars tend by nature to riots and chaos, most of them Kurds, Albanians, Circassians, in addition to those forces groups of Arabs who were governors resort to them as mercenaries, and work had been no more than guerrilla tactics and hit and run. Mohammed saw that this army does not support it, Fbzl effort in building an army unrivaled foreign armies in the fight, and decided to replace its soldiers irregular army on modern military regime. [111]
[Edit] Army
It was an attempt Muhammad Ali the first to establish a regular army in 1815, when he returned from the war Wahhabis, have decided to train a number of soldiers Arna'oot dairy belonging to his son Ismail band systems of modern military, in the place allotted to it in Bulaq. Did not live up to these soldiers, because of their nature that tend to riots and chaos, Fetaaroa on Muhammad Ali and attacked his palace and house between them and the guard fight, managed through which guards Muhammad Ali control of the situation, but Muhammad Ali realized that he could not rely on such personnel, Varga implementation of the idea. [112]
Resorted Muhammad Ali back to the trick, In 1820, established the Muhammad Ali military school in Aswan, and right by the alpha Mmaen and Mamluks his top aides, to be trained on the systems of modern military at the hands of a French officer named Joseph Saڤ came to Egypt and offered his services to Muhammad Ali. After three years of training, experience and successfully graduated that group to be the nucleus of these officers, which began with the regular army in Egypt. [112] [113]
After that, he was in front of Muhammad Ali problem, he and experimentally proved that the Turkish soldiers, Kurds, Albanians, Circassians are no longer fit to be mainstay of his army not to accept them for inclusion in the regular army, so argued its need them in securing stomata, and sent them to Damietta and Rosetta to evacuate Cairo, but reassured sent them some his sons to lead them, [113] then sent to his son Ismail to provide him with twenty thousand of Sudanese to be trained on the soldier in the camps prepared for them in brown Uday, at the hands of the new officers. However, the experiment failed to outbreaks of disease among the Sudanese soldiers, to the different climate, [112] [113] So not only rely on the front of the Egyptians. Peasants resisted initially recruited, because they did not see the benefit of them in it, and considered it an act of forced labor. But over time, the response to the new situation farmers, under the banner of the army sensed dignity and lives safe clothing and housing do not suffer the suffering in agriculture. By June of 1824, he became the Mohammad Ali six battalions of soldiers regulars, the more than 25 thousand troops, commanded moving to Cairo. [113]
Thus became Egypt's regular army began growing steadily until it reached 169 thousand officers and soldiers in the census was in 1833, and to 236 thousand in the census was in 1839. It also established Muhammad Ali Deewana knew Diwan jihad to regulate the affairs of the army and security needs of ammunition, supplies and medicine, and regulation of salaries. [113] was the first posts by this army in the war Morh, which showed what we have reached the Egyptian military, which made her affair between the military forces of contemporary , was adopted by Ibrahim Pasha in his campaign against Syria and Anatolia [113]
When initiated Muhammad Ali in the war Wahhabis, the need arises to build ships to transport soldiers across the Red Sea, embarking on its inception in the arsenal of Bulaq, then move the pieces on camels to Suez to be assembled there, was limited to the role of this fleet in the beginning on the transfer of supplies and logistics throughout Years campaign. [114] and after that the foundations of the regular army of Egypt, found it necessary to establish a strong armada assisted to extend his influence. [115]
Adopted Muhammad Ali at first to buy ships from Europe, also contracted to build other ships in the ports of Europe. [115] However, after the destruction of the fleet at the Battle of Naڤarin before the fleets of England, France and Russia the most sophisticated, did not give up Muhammad Ali and ordered in 1829 to build " Alexandria arsenal ", which managed to reign in the French engineer named Srizi. [116] the arsenal task of rebuilding the fleet to modern European styles, The number of warships that were made in the arsenal until 1837.28 warship, including 10 large ships each of them armed hundred cannon, Fastgnt Egypt to buy ships from abroad. It is the intensity of attention on this arsenal Muhammad was visited constantly, was to urge the workers to work and attend concerts launch new ships. [115] [116]
[Edit] Military Education
Expansion Muhammad Ali in military education in Egypt, after ordered the construction of school officers in Aswan and school personnel in Bani Uday, ordered the establishment of other schools in Farshout and Nekheila and Gerga. [113] He also founded a middle school warship Palace in kind for the processing of students to enter the military schools, taught by About 500 pupils, but quoted then to Abu Zaabal, where nine became about 1200 students. [111] [113]
Muhammad Ali said after that, a school for Piedh in khanqah, which were transferred to Damietta in 1834, then to Abu Zaabal in 1841, and a school for masts in Giza in 1831, and other artillery in Tora in 1831 as well. He also founded a school for the Military Staff on October 15, 1825 near khanqah, and School of Music military. [111] [113] and also established a training camp for soldiers on the fleet marine business in Ras figs. To prepare naval officers, he founded a school Muhammad Ali freely process on the back of one of the warships, and when expanded to two divisions divided every one of them on the ship. [115]
[Edit] Military Industries
Muhammad Ali saw that in order to ensure the independence, so as not to become at the mercy of foreign countries, it created weapons factories in Egypt. The weapons factory and defender in the castle first of this thinking, which he founded in 1827, and was produced between 600 and 650 rifle, and between 3 and 4 guns per month. As it was produced swords and spears and cavalry swords and clans bits and saddles. In 1831, he founded the Muhammad Ali of another factory rifles in the basin observed, was producing 900 gun per month, and then a third plant on the outskirts of Cairo, and was manufactured in three factories Year 36.000 rifle except revolvers and swords. [111] [113]
He also founded a laboratory for Kahrjalat in Roda Island away from urbanization, and added to other laboratories and Ashmunein Ahnasia and Badrasheen, Fayoum and Altarana total production in 1833, about 15.800 quintals. [111] [113]
[Edit] educationally
Muhammad Ali realized that in order to promote his own, he must establish educational system, the pillar upon which to provide qualified human bodies, which manages the modern state and its army strong. So it began to Muhammad Ali to send a range of students Azharites to Europe to study in several areas, to be the nucleus of the scientific renaissance began. He also founded the elementary and high schools, to prepare successive generations of learners who rely on them modern state. [117]
[Edit] scientific missions
In 1813, he was sent Muhammad Ali's first educational missions to Europe, and was addressed to Italy, where fielded a number of students to Livorno, Milan, Florence and Rome to study military science and methods of shipbuilding, engineering, printing, and then followed by missions to France and England. The first small missions, where he was sent a number of which does not exceed 28 students, and although it has them shine Osman Nur al-Din, who became Amiralay Egyptian fleet and Nicola Massabki, who founded the order of the Bulaq Press Muhammad Ali in 1821. [117]
However, the golden age of those missions, he was with the mission in 1826, which consisted of 44 students to study military science and management, medicine, agriculture, natural history and metallurgy, chemistry, hydraulics and poured metal and the arms industry, printing, architecture and translation. [118] followed the campaign a second campaign in 1828 to France, and a third in 1829 to France, England, Austria, and a fourth has specialized in medical science only in 1832. The year 1844, the largest such scientific missions and sent to France, known as the "Mission ceremonies" because it included 83 students, including two sons of Mohammed Ali and two grandchildren. The total number of such missions nine missions, involving 319 students and a total spent on them 303.360 pounds. [117] He also ordered Muhammad Ali directing three campaigns led by captain Salim Bakbashi years 1839.1840, and 1841 to explore the headwaters of the Nile. For those campaigns was great merit in exploring those areas and know their conditions. [50]
[Edit] high schools
Established several colleges and was called at the time "high school", initiated in 1816, School of Engineering castle to graduate engineers pledge to work construction. In 1827, established the School of Medicine at Abu Zaabal advice from Clot Bey to meet the needs of the army doctors, and with time served these doctors the general public, then right by the School of Pharmacy, and other midwives (birth) in 1829. Then set up a school Alengkhana in Bulaq of Military Engineering School, minerals in ancient Egypt in 1834, and a school of Al lockup in 1836, and the School of Agriculture Nprōh year and school accountability in Sayeda Zeinab in 1837, and the School of Veterinary Medicine at Rosetta and School of Arts and Trades in 1839, [117] The total high school students about 4.500 students.
[Edit] primary schools
As high school progressed and expanded, decided to create a Muhammad Ali "Diwan schools" in 1837, and managed to reign some members of the missions returning to Egypt, to organize school education. Decided this Court to broaden the base of education in Egypt, he put a list of primary education, stated the need to create 50 elementary school, which was approved by Muhammad Ali, and is created to be 4 of them in Cairo and one in Alexandria, each consisting of 200 students, and the rest is distributed to the various regions and each consisting of 100 pupils. [117]
[Edit] economically
In order to achieve political independence Muhammad Ali, was in need of development of the country's wealth and strengthen its financial position, so deliberately to stimulate economic aspects of Egypt, and was used to achieve that tens of thousands of Egyptian workers who worked in those areas forced labor. [119]
[Edit] Industry
Bani Muhammad Ali industrial base for Egypt, and its motives to do so in the first place to provide the needs of the army, he established a number of textile factories and factory Gogh in Bulaq factory ropes necessary for warships and commercial plant for fabrics silk and another for wool and the third for linen fabric and factory Altarabich Bvoh, in addition to laboratory Casting Bulaq iron and copper panels factory, which was lined with ships, and plants for the production of sugar, indigo factories, soap and leather tanning Berrechid glass factory and Chinese factory wax and contemporary oils. As it was for the establishment of marine arsenal a major role in the manufacture of commercial ships. [111] [120]
[Edit] Agriculture
Muhammad Ali interested in agriculture, irrigation construction Vaatny many canals and built bridges and arches. The expanded agriculture, Fajss about 3.000 acres for growing berries for use in the production of natural silk, and olive oils for the production, as planting trees to meet the needs of shipbuilding and construction work. In 1821, agriculture Enter a new breed of cotton fit for the apparel industry, after it was common product is only suitable for use in upholstery. [120]
[Edit] Trade
After that increased agricultural crops Egypt and especially cotton, expanded Egypt's foreign trade. He also played the establishment of commercial fleet and rehabilitation of the port of Alexandria and paving through Suez - Cairo and secure for the convoys, a role in re-trade movement between India and Europe via Egypt, Venctt foreign trade activity great, until it reached the value of exports 2.196 million pounds and imports 2.679 million pounds in 1836. [120 ]
The rule of Mohammed Ali ruled Egypt Ottoukrattiya with a tendency to consult some close before the conclusion of things, but it differed from the authoritarian rule of the Mamluks in that he was subject to a management system instead of the chaos that prevailed in the Mamluk era. The foundations of Muhammad Ali government council known as the "Higher Court" based castle headed by Deputy Governor Mohammad Ali, and is subject to the authority of this Court shall collections of military affairs, marine, trade and foreign affairs, schools, buildings and works. He also founded a council of advice of senior state officials and a number of dignitaries and scholars, is held every year and specializes in discussing management issues, education and public works. In 1837, Muhammad Ali put a fundamental law known as the law of "Alsaastnama", specifying the respective powers of the Court of bureaucracy. [121]
[Edit] administrative division
Department of Muhammad Ali of Egypt to seven directorates four in Lower Egypt, the first involving the lake and the Cairo and Giza and the second Menoufia, Western and Third Dakahlia and fourth East, and one in central Egypt Included Beni Suef, Fayoum, Minya, and two in Upper Egypt the first South Minya to the north of Qena, the second of Qena to Wadi Halfa, in addition to the five governorates of Cairo and Alexandria and Rosetta and Damietta and Suez. [121]
[Edit] financial system
Muhammad Ali regime abolished the "commitment" which allowed for some individuals who call Palmltzmen to pay taxes on the shares of some of the villages, and empowers them to collect their knowledge, which was exhausting farmers because they usually were Aajabua those funds worth more than they paid. However, replaced this system with "monopoly" that made Muhammad Ali the sole owner of the territory of the country of Egypt, and thus abolished private ownership of land. [122] as strained Muhammad Ali people tax that was imposed on the people, whenever he needs to finance a campaigns or projects without system Specifically, those included taxes, taxes on land and crops and livestock and individuals. As Muhammad Ali monopolized the land and agriculture, also monopolized the industry and trade, [123], making him the sole owner of the territory of Egypt, and the merchant only for its products, and the only manufacturer of its products. [121]
[Edit] residential
Interested Muhammad Ali some respects Urban that serve their own emerging, founding cities such as Khartoum, Kassala, [50] and established forts to defend the stomata and the capital of the country, [113] also built lighthouse to guide ships in Ras figs in Alexandria. [115] and me also built palaces and the role of government and established Dfterkhana to save government documents, and a home for the effects of having ordered the exit to prevent the effects of Egypt, and Abdul trade routes and traffic systems E and make him rest stations for horses. [120]
[Edit] socially
Include the community in the era of Mohamed Ali to several social classes highest ruling class, which included family of Muhammad Ali and senior men and state officials of learners in schools and scholarships to the outside, then a layer of scientists and dignitaries Farmers and factory workers and damaged The and slave of the Greeks, who were captured in war Morh and concubines Crkisiat and Alhbashaat and Sudanese who Be serving in the homes of the wealthy. The increased population in the era of Mohamed Ali of 2.5144 million people in 1823, to 4.47644 million inhabitants in 1845. [121] was Muhammad Ali Pasha, tolerant and broad-minded in religious affairs 0.11 proximity to Christians as Muslims, and hired their equivalents and brought them in his entourage. [ 124]
[Edit] the end of Muhammad Ali Pasha
[Edit] his last years
After the withdrawal of the soldiers of the Egyptian Levant and the separation recent Egypt and return to throughout the Ottoman Empire substantial international support, and after it became clear that France was not ready to go to war for the sake of Egypt or her, wounded Muhammad Ali Pasha, a state of paranoia, and becoming muddled thinking slowly, and suffers difficulty in remembering, it is uncertain whether this is the result of mental effort during the war Sham, or a natural condition as a result offer a tooth, or the effect of silver nitrate, which advised doctors since the time of their abuse for the treatment of the same disease dysentery. [125]
What increased the case of Mohamed Ali Pasha worse were the calamities that befell Egypt and him personally in late age, in the year 1844 turned out to Court Chief Financial Sharif Pasha, the debt of the Egyptian state has reached 80 million francs, and that the tax arrears amounted to 14.0815 million pounds of total tax estimated at 75.2275 million penny. [126] and fear Basha of submitting the matter to Muhammad Ali because he may have a significant impact upon, introduced the matter to the Ibrahim Pasha, who suggested that the love of his sisters to his father to transfer news, but it did not have the desired impact, it has exceeded anger Muhammad Ali what to expect everybody, did not rest his mind and ensconce him his mind only after six days. [126]
A year after this incident, injured Ibrahim Pasha TB, and intensified by the gout, and took the spit up blood when coughing, and adding more worries of Muhammad Ali and his grief, he sent his son to Italy for treatment, although he knew in his heart that his son would be dead, This is illustrated clearly what he said to the Sultan when he visited Astana in 1846, where he expressed his fear of the loss of his achievements because of the inefficiency of his grandchildren to take responsibility for the country and the people, he said: «I have an old queer, and Abbas lax lazy, it is going to rule Egypt now only boys, and how these that preserve it? »[127] then returned to the Muhammad Ali of Egypt and remained until it is automatically intensified by aging, and by 1848 he had suffered dementia and became his throne state impossible, and isolation of his sons took over the state administration Ibrahim Pasha.
[Edit] his death
The rule of Ibrahim Pasha Egypt over the six months, before he could from the disease and dies in the November 10 1848, succeeded by his nephew Toson, Abbas Hilmi. [128] By this time, Muhammad Ali Pasha suffering from the disease as well, and he had reached a limit of dementia can not absorb the news of the death of his son Ibrahim, did not reach it. Muhammad lived a few months after the death of his son, and he died in the palace of Ras El-Teen in Alexandria on August 2 1849 m, corresponding to the 13 Ramadan in the year 1265, [129] transferred his body to Cairo where he was buried in the mosque which had been built before the time in the castle town. The funeral of Muhammad Ali Pasha moderate attendance and ceremony, due largely to the governor Abbas Hilmi who has long differed in opinions and stripes with his grandfather and his uncle, Ibrahim, and was carrying a bit of rancor. British Consul says John Murray, one of the people who took part in the funeral of Muhammad Ali to his final resting place:
... The attendance at the funeral attended tiny Gotha; many consuls and ambassadors had not been invited to participate, and did not shut down shops and government departments .. In short, there is a general impression that Abbas Pasha is culpable, has played down his grandfather and his memory bright, and did not respect his memory, to respect, and how not to be allowed to take place funeral of this man on this form miserable and neglected care of the most neglected.
The attached ... and revere all strata of Egyptian society to name Muhammad Ali is a funeral greatest affair and more honorable than any other funeral offered his successors. Speaking parents adults who remember the chaos and injustice which sank by the country before arriving; compares the youth his ex successor volatile and volatile; all layers of the people of the left and the Arabs, do not hesitate to say that Egypt is booming civilized died with Muhammad Ali ... in fact, sir , we can not and no one can deny, that Muhammad Ali, in spite of all his faults, was a man of great respect. [130]
[Edit] legacy
The most prevailing theories when historians and the public sphere, are those that say that Muhammad Ali Pasha is the "father of modern Egypt," he was ruling the first out, and who could strip the door of higher authority actual country, since the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517. Although he failed to achieve total separation of Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, but it laid the foundations of modern Egyptian state, which crystallized after his death. Through construction of a large army and a strong advocate for his country and expand its turf, established a centralized bureaucratic education system and allowed access for social mobility in the Egyptian society, and the economic base and broad-based agriculture and military industries. It was like his efforts and work to consolidate the rule of the descendants of Egypt and Sudan over 150 years ago, Egypt was the state autonomous legal under the Ottoman Empire, then under British protection. [131]
Sees another section of the people, that Muhammad Ali Pasha was builder of modern Egypt, but it is a foreign gas, like any other occupier of the land of Egypt, starting from the Persians in 525 BC. M.. [132] and the arguments of advocates of this view are several points , including that Muhammad Ali did not speak Arabic or makes the official language in his court, but replaced them Turkic, as it took advantage of the wealth of Egypt and human resources to achieve its objectives for, and not for the benefit of the country and its people, and he stretched the Egyptians taxes and forced labor, forced recruitment. Among the most prominent threads that make some reservations on the era of Mohamed Ali Pasha, the story of his intention to demolish the Great Pyramid and the use of stones massive building barrages new at the head of the Nile Delta in the Hleghan, which later became Qanater, which dropped her after that persuaded the French engineer "Linan "not feasible. [133] On the whole outlook is above outlook at least palatable when historians and especially Arabs of them. [134]
[Edit] his wives and sons and Mistoldath
He married Muhammad Ali Pasha two women: the first was a girl Amina Hanim Ali Pasha famous Bmusrla from the village Nsrthl and Rizk, including five children, three sons and two daughters, namely: Ibrahim Pasha, Ahmed Pasha Tosson, Ismail Kamil Pasha, ma'am unification, and Nazli Hanim. The second is his wife Hanim Mah rotation, known as the "Oqmh trimmers", not kicking them boys. [135]
Also had a number of Muhammad Ali Almistoldat, they are his queen and his right according to Islamic law, Kajawara or slaves. The Mistoldath They: Um Noman Noman has Rizk, including your eye trimmers life has Rizk, including Mohammed Said Pasha, Excellent trimmers have Rizk, including Hussein, your Mahoush trimmers have Rizk them to your friend, Nam Shaz trimmers have Rizk, including Mohamed Abdel Halim, Zabh Khadija trimmers have Rizk, including Muhammad Ali Pasha, the small, sun description trimmers have Rizk, including two daughters: Fatima Hanim Hanim paper, wax light trimmers have Rizk, including ZM. In addition to Nayla trimmers and Klfdan trimmers and trimmers moon, who did not kicking them Boulad. [135]
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